World War Wednesdays: In the News: The USS Indianapolis

USS Indianapolis in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii in 1937. US Navy Photo

     Among the many hot topics to hit the airwaves in the past few weeks was the discovery of the WWII USS Indianapolis wreck at its final resting place in the Philippine Sea. In the spirit of this remarkably tragic piece of American history, I've elected to discuss the life and legacy of its captain, Charles McVay III, in the hopes of a renewed discussion of the story's human element.

U.S. Naval Institute

      Capt. Charles McVay III was a 1920 graduate of the US Naval Academy and a career naval officer with an exemplary record, whose father had commanded the Navy's Asiatic Fleet in the early 1900s. Before taking command of the Indianapolis in November 1944, he was chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee of the combined chiefs of staff in Washington, the Allies' highest intelligence unit. According to ussindianapolis.org, "Captain McVay led the ship through the invasion of Iwo Jima, then the bombardment of Okinawa in the spring of 1945 during which Indianapolis anti-aircraft guns shot down seven enemy planes before the ship was struck by kamikaze on March 31, inflicting heavy casualties, including 13 dead, and penetrating the ship's hull. McVay returned the ship safely to Mare Island in California for repairs.

     On July 16, 1945, the Indianapolis sailed from California with a top secret cargo to Hawaii for refuelling, then to Tinian where it unloaded its cargo, the uranium and major components of the atomic bomb to be dropped on Hiroshima by the Enola Gay on August 6. The Indianapolis was then routed to Guam that the seeds for the destruction of the Pacific had long since ceased. The Japanese surface fleet no longer existed as a threat, and 1,000 miles to the north preparations were underway for the invasion of the Japanese mainland. These conditions resulted in a relaxed state of alert on the part of those who were to route the Indianapolis across the Philippine Sea."

     ussindianapolis.org includes a list of evidence as to the details of the ship's fateful final journey:

• Although naval authorities at Guam knew that on July 24, four days before the Indianapolis departed for Leyte, the destroyer escort USS Underhill had been sunk by a Japanese submarine within range of his path, McVay was not told.
• Although a code-breaking system called ULTRA had alerted naval intelligence that a Japanese submarine (the I-58 by name which ultimately sank the Indianapolis) was operating in his path, McVay was not told. (Classified as top secret until the early 1990s, this intelligence -- and the fact it was withheld from McVay before he sailed from Guam -- was not disclosed during his subsequent court-martial.)
• Although no capital ship (unequipped with antisubmarine detection devices such as the Indianapolis) had made the transit between Guam and the Philippines without a destroyer escort throughout World War II, McVay's request for such an escort was denied.
• Although the routing officer at Guam was aware of dangers in the ship's path, he said a destroyer escort for the Indianapolis was "not necessary" (and, unbelievably, testified at McVay's subsequent court-martial that the risk of submarine attack along the Indianapolis's route "was very slight").
• Although McVay was told of "submarine sightings" along his path, none had been confirmed. Such sightings were commonplace throughout the war and were generally ignored by navy commanders unless confirmed.

    "Thus, the Indianapolis set sail for Leyte on July 26, 1945, sent into harm's way with its captain unaware of dangers which shore-based naval personnel knew were in his path. Captain McVay's orders were to "zigzag at his discretion." Zigzagging is a naval maneuver used to avoid torpedo attack, generally considered most effective once the torpedoes have been launched. No Navy directives in force at that time or since recommended, much less ordered, zigzagging at night in poor visibility. At about 11pm on Sunday night, July 29, the Indianapolis traveling alone was about halfway across the Philippine Sea. There was heavy cloud cover with visibility severely limited. Captain McVay gave orders to cease zigzagging and retired to his cabin. Minutes later the ship was  spotted as an indistinct blur by Japanese submarine commander Mochitura Hasimoto of the I-58. It was coming directly toward him from the east. Shortly after midnight the ship was struck by two torpedoes and sank in about twelve minutes. 

     When the ship failed to arrive at Leyte on Tuesday morning, a series of blunders ensued. First, there was confusion as to which area the Indianapolis was to report when it arrived. Second, there was no directive to report the non-arrival of a combatant ship. And, third, there was no request to retransmit a garbled message which would have clarified the Indianapolis' arrival time. As a result, the surviving crew of the Indianapolis was left floating in shark-infested waters until 11am on Thursday, August 2, when Lt. Wilbur C. Gwinn, the pilot of a Ventura scout-bomber, lost the weight from his navigational antenna trailing behind the plane, a loss which was to save the lives of 316 men. While crawling back through the fuselage of his plane to repair the thrashing antenna, Gwinn happened to glance down at the sea and noticed a long oil slick. Back in the cockpit, Gwinn dropped down to investigate, spotted men floating in the sea, and radioed for help. At 3:30 that afternoon Lt. R. Adrian Marks, flying a PBY Catalina, was the first to arrive on the scene. Horrified at the sight of sharks attacking men below him, Marks landed his flying boat in the sea, and, pulling a survivor aboard, he was the first to learn of the Indianapolis disaster." ussindianapolis.org

     Capt. William J. Toti, USN (Retired) describes the legal scandal that ensued:         "The Indy controversy erupted in August 1945, just after the atomic bombs were dropped. The American public was outraged at the loss of more than 800 lives in the waning days of the war, and a Navy court of inquiry was convened to investigate. Its recommendation was that Captain McVay be court-martialed for hazarding his vessel by failure to zigzag, but Admiral Chester Nimitz disagreed and instead issued the captain a letter of reprimand. Admiral Ernest King later overturned Nimitz’s decision and recommended a court-martial, which Secretary of the Navy Forrestal later convened.

In doing so, King intervened directly with the Secretary of the Navy to move forward with the court-martial in parallel with an investigation by the Inspector General (IG). But a court-martial is a trial, not an investigatory tool. If King’s problem was simply a lack of information, why didn’t he allow the Inspector General to issue his report before ordering the court-martial? Some believe it is because King was not satisfied that the IG’s conclusions would support his decision to court-martial.

The Navy Judge Advocate General also was asked to review the referral. His response contained the curious statement that the charges included in the initial referral were “the only ones that can be supported,” as if an agenda was at work to establish a greater foundation for prosecution. Whatever the truth, this statement certainly creates the perception that the Judge Advocate General was under direction to discover more charges to refer against McVay.

     

     In the end, McVay was charged with two counts: suffering his vessel to be hazarded by failing to zigzag, and failure to order abandon ship in a timely manner. His counsel, reportedly hand-picked by King, had never argued a case in court before. The court claimed that McVay was not being charged for any deficiency that led to the sinking of his ship. They made a strong case that the “Indianapolis was hazarded before she was ever detected by I-58, and would have been hazarded if she had never been detected by I-58.” In essence, McVay could have been found guilty in a court– martial even if his ship had not been sunk. This is a meaningless legal distinction, however, since absent the sinking, there would have been no way for anyone to know that the vessel had been hazarded.

     Hence, despite the fact that McVay was convicted only on the first count—for suffering his vessel to be hazarded by not zigzagging—there is no way to escape the fact that Captain McVay was court-martialed for having his ship sunk. Put all these facts together, and it is understandable why most of the survivors believe that Admiral King was doing all he could to tilt the scales of justice against McVay. Even Admiral Nimitz later would say to one survivor that the entire affair involving the court-martial was a mistake and should never have happened."

     From a statement submitted at a September 1999 Senate hearing by Paul J. Murphy, USS Indianapolis survivor: "The charge upon which he was convicted for failing to zigzag contained a phrase 'in good visibility.' The visibility that night was NOT good as all of us know who were there that night."

     Like Murphy, many of Indianapolis's survivors said that McVay was not to blame for the sinking, the families of some of the men who died thought otherwise. One piece of mail read: "Merry Christmas! Our family's holiday would be a lot merrier if you hadn't killed my son." The guilt that was placed on McVay's shoulders mounted until he committed suicide in 1968, using his Navy-issued revolver. He was discovered on his front lawn with a toy sailor in one hand. He was 70 years old.

     In 1996, sixth-grade student Hunter Scott began his research on the sinking of the Indianapolis, which led to a United States Congressional investigation. In October 2000, the United States Congress passed a resolution that Captain McVay's record should state that "he is exonerated for the loss of Indianapolis", which was signed by President Bill Clinton. The resolution noted that, although several ships of the U.S. Navy were lost in combat in World War II, McVay was the only captain to be court-martialed for the sinking of this ship.

     In July 2001, the United States Secretary of the Navy ordered McVay's official Navy record cleared of all wrongdoing.

     In July 2016, new details about the sinking emerged which helped lead to the wreck's discovery this month. Read about those details here: http://www.cnn.com/2016/07/29/us/uss-indianapolis-sinking-anniversary/index.html and the discovery here: http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-41041013

     Credits to ussindianapolis.org and the U.S. Naval Institute for the information in this post. 

     Thanks for reading,

Delany (@DLeitchHistory on Twitter)

World War Wednesdays: SS Caledonia

Advertising card for the ship, Norway Heritage

     For those who remember the series of posts from a few weeks back about local First World War hero Maj. George Stirrett, this week's edition ties in as a bit of a spin-off. On June 9, 1915, Stirrett and the rest of his squadron, including Lieut. Billy Bishop, sailed for England on the SS Caledonia. I decided to investigate further into the history of that ship, a la the traditional WWW boat stories that seem to be a trend, and the results were quite interesting!

 Photograph of Caledonia dated 1904, possibly shortly after being launched, but it probably was actually taken in 1905 around the time of the ship’s maiden voyage on 25 March. Courtesy of the Peabody Museum, Salem, Massachusetts.

     The SS Caledonia was a 9,223-ton British passenger ship built for the Anchor Line by David and William Henderson and Company at Glasgow, Scotland. She was approximately 500 feet wide and could reach a top speed of 16 knots. Launched 22 October, 1904, her maiden voyage was 25 March, 1905. Primarily used for trips between Glasgow, Scotland and New York City, she could accommodate roughly 250 first class passengers, 350 second class passengers, and 850 third class passengers.

Main staircase and lift, Gjenvik-Gjønvik Archives

Italian veranda cafe, Gjenvik-Gjønvik Archives

Corridor Lounge, Gjenvik-Gjønvik Archives

Another view of the Corridor Lounge, Gjenvik-Gjønvik Archives

Italian smoking room, Gjenvik-Gjønvik Archives

An alcove in the Caledonia smoking room, Gjenvik-Gjønvik Archives

Caledonia stateroom with private bath, Gjenvik-Gjønvik Archives

     Between 1905 and 1914, the Caledonia was "one of the premier passenger liners that steamed between Glasgow and New York City on a weekly basis," and her fastest time between the two cities was 6 days and 20 hours. A 1911 travel brochure printed by the Anchor Line boasted of the Caledonia's amenities:
     "First Cabin passengers are furnished with a liberal table, including all the delicacies of the season, and everything necessary on the voyage. Wines and liquors pf the finest quality can be had on board at moderate prices. The Dining Saloons, Music Hall, Ladies' Boudoir Promenade Decks, and by means of electric bells, are in communication with the Steward's department. Every steamer carries a duly qualified Surgeon and experienced Stewardesses, and is provided with a select Library, including all the latest Guide Books of European travel. Staterooms are located on the Main and Upper Decks, are large, have electric lights, and are perfectly ventilated and elegantly furnished, accommodating two, three, and four passengers each. All Staterooms are provided with electric bells connected with Steward's department."

A stateroom on board Caledonia. Photograph taken from an Anchor Line travel brochure dated 1911, Naval Warfare Blog. 

First class dining saloon aboard Caledonia. Photograph taken from an Anchor Line travel brochure dated 1911, Naval Warfare Blog.

 First class music saloon aboard Caledonia. Photograph taken from an Anchor Line travel brochure dated 1911, Naval Warfare Blog. 

Anchor Line dinner menu from S.S. Caledonia on 4 July 1905, during a trip from Glasgow, Scotland, to New York City, Naval Warfare Blog.

     Rates for adult passage ranged from $67.50 to $125 depending on the accommodations, children between the ages of 1 and 10 traveled for a half fare, and infants under one year made the trip for only $5. 
_________________________________________________________________________________

     When the First World War began in August 1914, the British government requisitioned the Caledonia and converted the elegant liner into a troopship with the capacity to carry 3,074 troops and 212 horses. For over two years, the ship carried soldiers and their equipment to France, as well as to various locations around the Mediterranean. 
For
     On 5 December, 1916 (a year and a half after Maj. Stirrett's voyage), while on a trip carrying mail  but no troops from Salonica, Greece to Marseille, France, Caledonia was attacked by the German submarine U-65 under the command of Cpt. Hermann von Fischel. She was torpedoed without warning approximately 125 miles east of Malta. Although his ship was sinking, Caledonia's commanding officer, Captain James Blaikie, steered the troopship towards the U-Boat and tried to ram her. Caledonia actually managed to hit the submarine, causing severe damage, but the U-Boat stayed afloat as Caledonia sank, with the loss of only one life, and there was evidently enough time for the rest of the crew to abandon ship and make it to the lifeboats before Caledonia went down. Fortunately, the absence of troops on board the ship helped keep the number of fatalities low.

     Captain Fischel of U-65 was so enraged by being rammed that he took Captain Blaikie prisoner from one of the lifeboats. For a time, Germany threatened to execute Captain Blaikie for trying to sink U-65. But, the British government made it known to the German government (through the US ambassador in Berlin, since the US was still neutral at that time) that a German officer would be shot in retribution. Ultimately, Captain Blaikie was sent to an officer prisoner-of-war camp at Freidburg, Germany. 

     I came across two different news reports from two very different newspapers that covered the sinking of the Caledonia: 

From the Barrier Miner, Broken Hill, NSW, Australia, Tuesday, 12 December, 1916 (courtesy of the National Library of Australia)

Sinking of the Caledonia

German Official Report

(Reuter's Message)

Washington, Monday

     The German Embassy has received an official message from Berlin that the British Anchor liner Caledonia was sunk by a U submarine on December 4 after she had tried to ram a submarine and that the captain was made a prisoner.

From the Cornell Daily Sun, Ithaca, New York, Sunday, 11 December, 1916 (courtesy of the Cornell University Library)

Sinking of Caledonia Officially Announced

By The Associated Press

     Berlin, Dec. 10- The British steamer Caledonia was sunk by a German submarine on December 4 after she had tried to ram the undersea boat, it was officially announced today. Her captain was taken prisoner.

     Information this week is courtesy of the Naval Warfare Blog. I hope you enjoyed this glimpse inside and overview of a ship with a fascinating story!

      Thanks for reading, 

Delany (@DLeitchHistory on Twitter)

     

World War Wednesdays: The People of Malta, WWII

Bomb damage in Malta

     Welcome back to another World War Wednesday! In case you're interested in a little life update, I'm settling into my last semester here at the University of Ottawa and regularly alternating between shock at how fast these four years have gone and desperation for it to end. It's been a pretty crazy life experience so far and I am looking forward to what's next (but mostly just being free from the horrors of grad school applications). For some reason, a few of my profs have decided to suddenly jump aboard the technology bandwagon and assigned regular blogs as part of our course work, which is great for me. However, a lot of the assignments say that a blog is only 300-500 words which makes me wonder if World War Wednesdays should be changed to Wordy War Wednesdays! In the interest of being a quicker, more enjoyable read (and the fact that I'm now pretty much constantly blogging) I hope to try and shorten things up in the future.

     This week's topic is something I've come across numerous times but never fully devoted my attention to until now. During the Second World War, the Mediterranean island of Malta was a military and naval fortress given its highly strategic location as the only Allied base between Gibraltar and Alexandria, Egypt (North African Campaign). It facilitated offensive action against Axis shipping and land targets in the central Mediterranean, and its proximity to Italy made it the headquarters of the British Royal Navy's Mediterranean fleet beginning in 1939.

     Malta is 27km x 14km with an area of just under 260km2 (100 sq mi). In June 1940, its population was around 250,000, with most people living in small, congested areas near Valetta, the capital. It was those locations that experienced the heaviest, most sustained and concentrated aerial bombing in history. According to VisitMalta.com, the bombing lasted a record 154 days and nights and involved 6,700 tons of bombs. There were hardly any defenses on the island because of a prewar conclusion that it was indefensible, and the British only had three biplanes on the island. These were nicknamed Faith, Hope, and Charity.

      Over the course of the war, Malta featured heavily on the enemy's agenda given its important role as an Allied base. German Stuka dive bombers based in Sicily sought to pound the island into submission, but the ultimate danger was not solely confined to the air. Italy conducted a siege between June and December 1940, consisting of both air power (the optimal method for attacking the small island) and sea attacks, and the Italians also considered a plan to invade the island using landing craft. The British responded to these with a steady stream of reinforcements when it became clear that the Italian air forces were limited and had only a marginal effect on the Maltese population.

     Malta's darkest hours occurred most significantly in 1941 and 1942, when the Germans intervened in the attacks. As a result of Italian defeats in North Africa and their failure to complete the destruction of Malta, Hitler had little choice but to rescue and reinforce his ally. In early 1941, the Italians and Germans actually had air superiority over the inexperienced and worn-out RAF. In April, however, Hitler was forced to intervene in the Balkans and therefore had to abandon operations against Malta despite the Luftwaffe's successes.

     In the meantime, the Allies were able to resupply to the extent of having an 8-15 month reserve and were able to direct numerous resources to the defense of Malta, even launching their own offensive operations from the island. Toward the end of the year, the Germans began to refocus on their Sicilian operations, and marked New Year's 1942 with yet another air raid against Malta. In April 1942, the Germans and Italians approved a plan for the invasion of the island, which was postponed as a result of hesitations by both Erwin Rommel and Hitler himself. However, the Germans resolved to continue asserting their air superiority, and beginning in April through summer 1942 they engaged in fierce combat with the RAF now recognized as the Siege of Malta. During that time, the island was pushed almost to the point of capitulation, with food and supply shortages in addition to the constant onslaught of German bombs.

George Beurling

  It was during this period that Canadian fighter pilot George "Buzz" Beurling became "Canada's most famous hero of the Second World War," "The Falcon of Malta," and "The Knight of Malta." He was credited with shooting down 27 Axis aircraft in just 14 days, with that total climbing to 31 before the war's end. Beurling hailed from Verdun, Quebec, which happens to be the hometown of my professor and mentor, Dr. Serge Durflinger, and is mentioned in his book Fighting From Home: The Second World War in Verdun, Quebec. It's a great read if you're interested in learning more about this Canadian hero.

     Miraculously, the bombed remnants of a supply convoy were able to limp into Malta's Grand Harbour on 15 August and save the population from submission and starvation. The Allies emerged victorious, with the Axis air forces all but depleted, and the siege was lifted. Supply issues and smaller-scale offensives persisted after that, and the last air raid over Malta occurred in July 1943.

   

     In recognition of the immense suffering on behalf of the Maltese people during the siege, King George VI awarded the George Cross (civilian equivalent to the Victoria Cross) to the entire island in April 1942 so as "to bear witness to the heroism and devotion of its people." The George Cross is now woven into the Maltese flag and can be seen whenever it is flown. Interestingly, because the award was a personal gesture by the King and not an official British government decision, the story was never officially published in the London Gazette. Despite this, it remains to this day an exceptional gesture in response to truly exceptional circumstances, and the experience of the Maltese people remains one of the war's most incredible stories.
     Thanks for reading,
Delany (@DLeitchHistory on Twitter)