World War Wednesdays: The People of Malta, WWII

Bomb damage in Malta

     Welcome back to another World War Wednesday! In case you're interested in a little life update, I'm settling into my last semester here at the University of Ottawa and regularly alternating between shock at how fast these four years have gone and desperation for it to end. It's been a pretty crazy life experience so far and I am looking forward to what's next (but mostly just being free from the horrors of grad school applications). For some reason, a few of my profs have decided to suddenly jump aboard the technology bandwagon and assigned regular blogs as part of our course work, which is great for me. However, a lot of the assignments say that a blog is only 300-500 words which makes me wonder if World War Wednesdays should be changed to Wordy War Wednesdays! In the interest of being a quicker, more enjoyable read (and the fact that I'm now pretty much constantly blogging) I hope to try and shorten things up in the future.

     This week's topic is something I've come across numerous times but never fully devoted my attention to until now. During the Second World War, the Mediterranean island of Malta was a military and naval fortress given its highly strategic location as the only Allied base between Gibraltar and Alexandria, Egypt (North African Campaign). It facilitated offensive action against Axis shipping and land targets in the central Mediterranean, and its proximity to Italy made it the headquarters of the British Royal Navy's Mediterranean fleet beginning in 1939.

     Malta is 27km x 14km with an area of just under 260km2 (100 sq mi). In June 1940, its population was around 250,000, with most people living in small, congested areas near Valetta, the capital. It was those locations that experienced the heaviest, most sustained and concentrated aerial bombing in history. According to VisitMalta.com, the bombing lasted a record 154 days and nights and involved 6,700 tons of bombs. There were hardly any defenses on the island because of a prewar conclusion that it was indefensible, and the British only had three biplanes on the island. These were nicknamed Faith, Hope, and Charity.

      Over the course of the war, Malta featured heavily on the enemy's agenda given its important role as an Allied base. German Stuka dive bombers based in Sicily sought to pound the island into submission, but the ultimate danger was not solely confined to the air. Italy conducted a siege between June and December 1940, consisting of both air power (the optimal method for attacking the small island) and sea attacks, and the Italians also considered a plan to invade the island using landing craft. The British responded to these with a steady stream of reinforcements when it became clear that the Italian air forces were limited and had only a marginal effect on the Maltese population.

     Malta's darkest hours occurred most significantly in 1941 and 1942, when the Germans intervened in the attacks. As a result of Italian defeats in North Africa and their failure to complete the destruction of Malta, Hitler had little choice but to rescue and reinforce his ally. In early 1941, the Italians and Germans actually had air superiority over the inexperienced and worn-out RAF. In April, however, Hitler was forced to intervene in the Balkans and therefore had to abandon operations against Malta despite the Luftwaffe's successes.

     In the meantime, the Allies were able to resupply to the extent of having an 8-15 month reserve and were able to direct numerous resources to the defense of Malta, even launching their own offensive operations from the island. Toward the end of the year, the Germans began to refocus on their Sicilian operations, and marked New Year's 1942 with yet another air raid against Malta. In April 1942, the Germans and Italians approved a plan for the invasion of the island, which was postponed as a result of hesitations by both Erwin Rommel and Hitler himself. However, the Germans resolved to continue asserting their air superiority, and beginning in April through summer 1942 they engaged in fierce combat with the RAF now recognized as the Siege of Malta. During that time, the island was pushed almost to the point of capitulation, with food and supply shortages in addition to the constant onslaught of German bombs.

George Beurling

  It was during this period that Canadian fighter pilot George "Buzz" Beurling became "Canada's most famous hero of the Second World War," "The Falcon of Malta," and "The Knight of Malta." He was credited with shooting down 27 Axis aircraft in just 14 days, with that total climbing to 31 before the war's end. Beurling hailed from Verdun, Quebec, which happens to be the hometown of my professor and mentor, Dr. Serge Durflinger, and is mentioned in his book Fighting From Home: The Second World War in Verdun, Quebec. It's a great read if you're interested in learning more about this Canadian hero.

     Miraculously, the bombed remnants of a supply convoy were able to limp into Malta's Grand Harbour on 15 August and save the population from submission and starvation. The Allies emerged victorious, with the Axis air forces all but depleted, and the siege was lifted. Supply issues and smaller-scale offensives persisted after that, and the last air raid over Malta occurred in July 1943.

   

     In recognition of the immense suffering on behalf of the Maltese people during the siege, King George VI awarded the George Cross (civilian equivalent to the Victoria Cross) to the entire island in April 1942 so as "to bear witness to the heroism and devotion of its people." The George Cross is now woven into the Maltese flag and can be seen whenever it is flown. Interestingly, because the award was a personal gesture by the King and not an official British government decision, the story was never officially published in the London Gazette. Despite this, it remains to this day an exceptional gesture in response to truly exceptional circumstances, and the experience of the Maltese people remains one of the war's most incredible stories.
     Thanks for reading,
Delany (@DLeitchHistory on Twitter)

World War Wednesdays: Christmas at Auschwitz

SS officer Karl Hoecker lights a candle on a Christmas tree only weeks before the liberation of Auschwitz, USHMM

     Thanks for bearing with me through some weird technology weeks! As of now I believe things are back to normal and hopefully that won't ever happen again. I realize that this week's topic is a bit dark for the holiday season, but I've been doing some work on the Holocaust lately and happened upon this story. It's important to point out before we start that the Jewish prisoners would not have observed the holiday, but Christian Polish inmates did celebrate to the best of their ability during the five Christmases during the camp's operation. In addition, the Nazis employed at the camp held their own horrific festivities, as will be mentioned. These descriptions come from the testimonies of Polish prisoners who survived the infamous death factory and were compiled by the Auscwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum.

     The first Christmas Eve behind the barbed wire in 1940 was one of the most tragic, and created a terrible tradition which was repeated in subsequent years. On the roll-call square, the Nazis set up a Christmas tree complete with electric lights. Beneath it, they placed the bodies of prisoners who had died while working or freezing to death at roll call. Former prisoner Karol Świętorzecki later recalled that Lagerführer Karl Fritzsch referred to the corpses beneath the tree as “a present” for the living, and forbade the singing of Polish Christmas carols.

A Christmas tree standing in front of Block 15 in Auschwitz I, Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum

     The next year, the Nazis organized another dark Christmas. During the return from slave labor on the construction of Auschwitz II-Birkenau, they killed around three hundred Soviet POWs who were too weak to walk that day. According to an eyewitness account by former prisoner Ludwik Kryński, there was a second roll call at 6:00pm after the SS men had finished the first roll call and eaten their supper. In temperatures well below freezing, the prisoners were forced to listen to Pope Pius XII's Christmas Eve proclamation recited in German. Forty-two prisoners succumbed to the cold, and numerous others were brought to the point of nervous breakdowns at the sight. 
     Prisoners also tried to celebrate in their blocks and attempted to help their fellows whose spirits had been broken. An account in the Museum collections by Józef Jędrych from Block no. 10a describes how “the singing of German carols began, and then like the waves of the sea came the powerful words [from a Polish carol] ‘God is born, the powers tremble’ and others, until the final chord in the form of the Dąbrowski Mazurka [the Polish national anthem]. Everyone exchanged warm, cordial embraces and cried for a long time. There were those who sobbed out loud. . . . Such a grand moment never fades from memory. That Christmas is fixed forever in my heart and memory.”
     Henry Bartosiewicz smuggled in a small Christmas tree, which stood in room 7 block 25. Polish Army cavalry-platoon commander Witold Pilecki, a hero of the camp resistance movement, adorned it with a White Eagle carved from a turnip.

Christmas Eve Władysław Siwek. Auschwitz State Museum (APMA-B-I-1-107)

     The Germans set up another tree at Auschwitz II-Birkenau in 1942 and once again placed the bodies of murdered men beneath it. Former prisoner Krystyna Aleksandrowicz recalls their deaths: Before Christmas in 1942, the SS men put up a Christmas tree for us. On Christmas Eve, they gathered the labor details from the men’s camp and ordered them to carry soil in their coats. They shot any man who gathered up too little soil. Then they stacked a whole heap of corpses underneath the Christmas tree.”
     That Christmas was twenty-two year-old Walentyna Nokodem's first at the camp, and she later reflected on that horrible tree: "I remember my first Christmas in Birkenau. There was a Christmas tree and they gathered us up in the roll-call square, and under the tree they put the bodies of man, the bodies remained there for the whole Christmas, and they forced us to look at them. They put the Christmas tree by the end of our section, just by the barbed wire. I can't remember exactly but there were hundreds of bodies of male prisoners. It was my first Christmas in the camp. The women didn't want to look. We all cried."
     In her Auschwitz Chronicle, the late Danuta Czech, the Museum historian, notes under the date December 24, 1942 that, in the evening, Polish women prisoners in the Stabsgebaude [staff building] lighted candles on a fir bough that had been smuggled in. Carols were sung in many places around the camp, which lifted people’s spirits and gave them hope of surviving. In Block 18a, Christmas Eve had a religious dimension. A prisoner who was a Roman Catholic priest obtained some bread and used it as a substitute Host.

     By 1943, the November arrival of new camp commandant Arthur Liebehenschel had improved the prisoners' lives and there were no macabre "presents" that year. Many of the Polish prisoners received communion wafers in parcels from their families and shared them with other prisoners, including the Jews. In many blocks, the prisoners organized Christmas observances. 

     1944 was the last Christmas spent at Auschwitz. Since the days of the Third Reich were numbered, the holiday atmosphere was completely different. Father Władysław Grohs de Rosenburg, the prisoner priest, was even allowed to hold a midnight mass. The women in Birkenau prepared “Christmas gifts” for the children in the hospital, using material supplied by other women to sew about 200 toys. They attached two lumps of sugar or a piece of candy to each, and wrote the children’s names on the presents. One of the women dressed up as St. Nicholas and passed out the presents on Christmas Eve. Fifteen children from another block also received presents.
    Auschwiz-Birkenau Museum historian Teresa Świebocka says that in 1944, Leokadia Szymańska, who was then a patient in the camp hospital, made a small Christmas tree that is now part of the Museum’s collections. It features Polish flags and a Polish eagle at the top.

     The camp was liberated shortly after, on January 27, 1945,  finally granting the wishes made during the five Christmases observed there.   

      I hope this glimpse into some of history's most terrible Christmases was an interesting and thought-provoking reminder of how much we all have to be grateful for this holiday. I'm looking to explore the camp's celebrations held by Nazi guards and staff next week so that the two stories can be compared. Thanks so much for spending part of your busy holiday season reading this post!
     Delany Leitch (@DLeitchHistory on Twitter)

World War Wednesdays: Christmases 1942-1944 at No. 4 B&G, Fingal

    Merry Christmas to readers old and new of World War Wednesdays! For the past two weeks, we've been discussing the first festive celebrations at No. 4 B&G, Fingal thanks to Winston B. St. Clair. This week will be an extra holiday feature with three years in one post, from 1942-1944. So, take a break from all the preparations and get comfy!

Christmas #3, 1942
     Christmas of 1942 took much the same format as that of 1941. Committees were more experienced and improvements had been made to the physical plant. Aside from the water pipeline from Port Stanley, the biggest changes during 1942 were  systemic. In January and February 1942, a high level training conference was held in the United Kingdom to discuss changes to the Empire Air Training Plan. In the future the greatest stress would be placed on the quality of the graduates of the various training schemes instead of their numbers. Allied to this change was the decision, in March, to restructure the composition of aircrews of Royal Air Force heavy and medium bombers. Both events would add significantly to the load placed on the BCATP in Canada, especially at Air Observer Schools and Bombing and Gunnery Schools. The end result was a training conference at Ottawa in May 1942 that formalized what had been decided earlier. Another very important change took place in May when members of the RCAF (Women's Division) arrived at Fingal, adding many more capable minds and willing hands to the strength of the social fabric of the school. The arrival of the young women was also given credit for effecting a marked improvement in the appearance of the airmen. It was reported that the sales of hair tonic and aftershave lotion rose to record levels after the WDs arrived.

     In a sense the first event of the Christmas Season of 1942 took place on 27 November when the Christmas edition of the Fingal Observer went to press. This would inform the Fingalites of what events were scheduled to take place during the coming season. The Observer's nominal date of publication was 15 December, and it advised those people who wish to "let loose" over the holidays, to do their celebrating at the station.

Christmas #4, 1943
     Christmas of 1943 found No. 4 Bombing and Gunnery School to be a thriving and nearly self-contained community of 1,500 people. The school was, based on the census figures of 1941, the fourth largest community in Elgin County. Its social structure was well developed and well managed, and morale appears to have been very high. The school's physical plant had just about reached the limits of its growth, and the long hours of hard work that had gone into station beautification projects had given the place a definite park-like appearance. Because of the poor bus service between No. 4 B&GS and St. Thomas, additional emphasis had been placed on developing the school's own recreational facilities. Year 1943 had been a particularly busy, exciting and rewarding time of change and accomplishment, and Fingalites, not being fully aware of the consequences of downsizing of the BCATP, expected no less in 1944.

     The Christmas activities at Fingal followed the general pattern that had evolved within the school. The basic parameters being a season of activities that lasted for about two weeks, with approximately one half of the school's personnel taking a short leave at Christmas, and the remainder being away for New Years.

     The Christmas 1943 issue of the Fingal Observer was released on 13 December, and it was full of all sorts of good stuff that could be considered as being gifts from the gnomes at AFHQ. For example, airmen were told that laundry tubs were to be installed in their barracks. In fact, four already had been! This was a luxury that their WD cohorts had enjoyed for some time, but one that would not, at least for the foreseeable future, be extended to male NCOs and officers. 

     Another article said that airwomen could  now wear silk stockings with their uniform while on leave or after duty hours, but they must be the same colour as the authorized lisle hose. Ottawa neglected to tell them, however, where these stockings could be purchased. The CO's gift was that he was made responsible for ensuring that only the approved colour of stockings were in fact worn. The Observer did not mention who was delegated to perform this awesome task.

     The WDs did not get all the goodies being given to the fair sex. Readers were reminded that a recent pay increase gave airmen's wives, with children, a $1.52 per month increase in their cost of living allowance, bringing the total up to $4.02. In spite of this bounty they still could not afford to compete with the WDs for the scarce supply of silk stockings. The latter had just had their pay adjusted from 67% to 80% of men's rates, and there were rumors of lots of back pay forthcoming. 

     Not all presents came from Ottawa. The editor of the Observer ran an article on the history of the coal pile, and he suggested that it be cut out and saved as a souvenir, "Something to show your children...", he said. The coal pile at Fingal was, it seems, more than its name implied. It was in addition to its intended purpose, I am told, a place where young lovers would meet and do whatever young lovers do. Whatever went on, the mere mention of "coal pile" today in the presence of former Fingalites frequently brings forth giggles, gales of laughter, or a quick change of subject. For those readers with over active imagination who find the picture of young love being played out on top of a 100 ton pile of soft coal a bit too much to take, I hasten to remind them that the coal compound included a building, No. 46, to be specific.

     The Christmas Season proper got off to a good start on Sunday, 19 December, with a party held at the YMCA Hostess House. The following day's St. Thomas Times-Journal reported that the place was beautifully decorated for the occasion, with the center-piece being a splendidly decorated Christmas tree, and that every available square foot of space was used to accommodate the 300 or so guests. I suspect the figure of "300" was an exaggeration, a bit of journalistic license, perhaps. It said that unlike other open house events where the guests came and stayed only for a short time, that on this occasion they came and stayed. The party lasted all afternoon and for most of the evening. A short sing-along movie of Christmas carols was shown that evening in the Recreation Hall.

     The entertainment highlight of the season took place on the evening of 20 Dec., with the appearance of Mart Kenney's "Victory Parade of Canada's Spotlight Band." Mart Kenney and His Western Gentlemen were the foremost dance band in Canada, and arguably one of the finest in North America. The band's visit to Fingal coincided with its weekly Monday evening radio broadcast sponsored by Coca-Cola. These broadcasts originated from an armed force's establishment or a war production facility and took the form of a salute to the host establishment. 

Mart Kenney

     The "Salute to Fingal" broadcast was preceded by a short warm up concert and followed by a station dance. The next day's Times-Journal said that the Drill Hall was decorated and set-up in cabaret style, and there was a buffet lunch for the 1,000 people who attended the dance. Tickets to the dance cost $1.00 for a couple.

     On 21 Dec. the station got a splendid present with the opening of a four-lane bowling alley in one of the lean-tos recently added to the Drill Hall. A snack bar, to be operated by airwomen volunteers, was being built nearby, and would open in early January. A Christmas party was held for the children in the Recreation Hall on the same day with about 250 parents and children in attendance. Movies were shown and Christmas carols were sung to the accompaniment of the station orchestra. An interesting feature of the event was that a number of young men from several different countries went on the stage and told the children how Christmas was celebrated back home. Santa arrived by aircraft with presents and treats for the children. The candy was made at the school by Cpl. Van Buskirk because it was not available from outside sources in the quantities required.

     On 23 Dec., men of the Air Bomber Course #92, and Wireless Air Gunner Course #68 graduated, and were presented with their wings. That evening the airwomen held a party in the canteen, using the proceeds of a raffle to defray the costs of decorations and refreshments. Presents were exchanged by all the young women remaining on the station. The Daily Diary indicated that Christmas Eve was spent by many at an informal dance held in the Recreation Hall.

     On Christmas Day, Senior NCOs and Warrant Officers entertained the Officers in the Sergeants' Mess. At noon they all went to the Other Ranks mess hall where they served the Airwomen their Christmas dinner. Later, an informal dance and movie were enjoyed. Some personnel were the guests of local residents for Christmas dinner. 

     From 26 Dec. on, flying exercises took place whenever the weather permitted. Organized evening entertainment consisted mainly of movies supplied by the YMCA. The Daily Diary reported that on New Year's Eve 250 attended a dance in the Recreation Hall. 

The Last Noel: Christmas #5, 1944
     The Christmas Season of 1944 at Fingal differed in a number of ways from those of previous years. Perhaps the principal difference was that in spite of the German successes, in what we now call the "Battle of the Bulge", there was a general feeling that the war in Europe was just about over. This attitude was strengthened by the remarks of the Commanding Officer that put the future of Fingal in question. The RC Padre added to the uncertainty when he reminded the readers of the Observer "that this may well be the last Christmas that we RCAF people spend together as a uniformed family."

     In spite of the overall reduction in training, Fingal fared well as it was training Wireless Air Gunners, Air Bombers and Flight Engineers, categories of aircrew for which there was still a demand. In terms of Monthly Unit Strength this school reached its peak of 1,850 in July 1944. This was the result of an increase in the student population during the summer, combined with an increased intake of repatriated, tour expired, aircrew officers. For the latter, Fingal was a holding unit,- a warehouse- where they would stay and be prepared for release, or to wait for other service assignments. From September onward, there was a drop in the student population, and barrack blocks were closed or converted to other uses. 

     The festive season, that was definitely low-key compared to a year earlier, started off on 19 December with a Christmas Box Dance in the drill hall. Young women came from St. Thomas, with transportation provided free by Richards Coach Lines. On 21 Dec., a children's Christmas party was held at the school, and Richards again provided free transportation from St. Thomas. On Christmas Eve, a candlelight service was held in the Recreation Hall, and later a Midnight Mass was celebrated in the Catholic Chapel.

     Christmas Day followed the usual Fingal routine. The Warrant Officers and Senior NCOs entertained the Officers in the NCOs Mess, and then they went over to the Other Ranks Mess to to serve Christmas dinner to the airmen and airwomen. Various entertainments were provided between Christmas and New Years. On New Years Eve a dance was held in the Recreation Hall. Both the Senior NCOs and Officers Messes held an open house, but bad weather kept attendance to a low level. On New Year's Day, the Warrant Officers and Senior NCOs were entertained in the Officers Mess and then they served dinner to the airmen and airwomen, in the OR Mess Hall.

     The Christmas Season, then, as now, served as a time of reflection, anticipation and resolve; but at that particular time there was also a deep sense of nostalgia that permeated events. The men and women at Fingal celebrated the season with many familiar faces missing, but that in itself was not unusual. What was different, was that a significant number of those absent had been retired from the Air Force: their services were no longer required. They had gone home!

     This was to be the last Christmas held at No. 4 Bombing and Gunnery School, Fingal, for on 11 January 1945, Organization Order 509 was signed authorizing the disbanding of the school, effective 17 February 1945. There would be other Christmases celebrated at Fingal but not of the magnitude of the five celebrated during the war years.